第1章　导　言

1.1　复习笔记

本章要点：

1．The definition and main branches of linguistics study

语言学的定义和研究的范围

2．The definition and the origins of language

语言的定义与起源

3．The design feature and the function of language

语言的特征和功能

4．Some major concepts in linguistics

语言学中重要的概念

本章考点：

1．有关语言学的常考考点

(1) 语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。

(2) 语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。

(3) 普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。

(4) 宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

2．有关语言的常考考点

(1) 语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；

(2) 语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；

(3) 语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。)

本章内容索引：

I. Definition of linguistics

II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar

III. Scope of linguistics

1．Microlinguistics

2．Macrolinguistics

IV. Definition of language

V. Origins of language

1．Ding-Dong Theory

2．Sing-Song Theory

3．Pooh-Pooh Theory

4．Yo-He-Ho Theory

5．Ta-Ta Theory

6．Bow-Wow Theory

VI. Design features of language

1．Arbitrariness

2．Duality

3．Productivity

4．Interchangeability

5．Displacement

6．Specialization

7．Cultural transmission

VII. Functions of language

1．Phatic function/communion

2．Directive function

3．Informative function

4．Interrogative function

5．Expressive function

6．Evocative function

7．Performative function

VIII. Some major concepts in linguistics

1．Descriptive and prescriptive grammar

2．Synchronic and diachronic linguistics

3．Langue and parole

4．Competence and performance

5．Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations

6．Functionalism and formalism

I. Definition of linguistics (语言学的定义)

【考点：名词解释】

The scientific or systemic study of language, which is always guided by the- three canons of science: exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.

语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。语言学研究的科学性可以归纳为：穷尽性、一致性以及简洁性。

II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar (语言学与传统语法)

Linguistics differs from traditional grammar at least in three basic ways.

1．Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness.

2．Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written.

3．Linguistics describes each language on its own merits.

语言学在以下三方面不同于传统语法。

1．语言学描述语言而非设定规则。

2．语言学认为口语是基础而非文字。

3．语言学描述不同的语言，而非一概而论。

III. Scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范畴)

1．Microlinguistics(微观语言学)

Phonetics语音学

Phonology音系学

Morphology形态学

Syntax句法学

Semantics语义学

Pragmatics语用学

2．Macrolinguistics (宏观语言学)

Sociolinguistics社会语言学

Psycholinguistics心理语言学

Neurolinguistics神经语言学

Stylistics文体学

Discourse analysis语篇分析

Computational linguistics计算语言学

Cognitive linguistics认知语言学

Applied linguistics应用语言学

IV. Definition of language (语言的定义)

【考点：名词解释】

1．Language is a system—elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles.

2．Language is arbitrary—there is no intrinsic connection between the word (e.g. pen) and the thing (e.g. what we write with).

3．Language is vocal—the primary medium for all languages is sound.

4．Language is used for human communication—it is human-specific, very different from systems of animal communication.

1．语言是一个系统——其元素非任意排列，而是根据一定规则组合的。

2．语言是任意的——词与其所指物之间没有内在的联系。

3．语言是口头的——是所有语言的基本交流形式。

4．语言是人类用来交流的工具——不同于动物的交流系统。

V. Origins of language (语言的起源)

1．Ding-Dong Theory (叮咚理论)

Human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered.

语言起源于原始人对物体的口头表达。

2．Sing-Song Theory (唱歌说)

Language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.

语言起源于原始仪式赞美的歌声。

3．Pooh-Pooh Theory (噗噗理论)

Language came from interjections, which express the speaker’s emotions.

语言来源于人本能表达情感的声音。

4．Yo-He-Ho Theory (呦嘿吼理论)

Language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.

语言来源于共同劳动时发出的呦嘿声。

5．Ta-Ta Theory (哒哒说)

Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue movements.

语言来源于移动舌头发出的声音与某个手势的结合。

6．Bow-Wow Theory (汪汪理论)

Language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.

语言起源于人们模仿动物的叫声和其他自然界中的声音。

VI. Design features of language (语言的定义特征)

【重点、考点：论述语言的识别特征】

1．Arbitrariness (任意性)

This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. There is no reason, for example, why English should use the sounds /dɔg/ to refer to the animal dog, or why Chinese should use “gou” to refer to the same animal. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental.

任意性是指某个符号的声音与意义之间没有逻辑或内在联系。例如，英文中用/dɔg/来指动物狗，而中文却用“gou”。单词的声音与其意义之间的关系是任意的。

2．Duality (二重性)

Language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. For instance, human language has a number of sound units, or phonemes, but each phoneme is normally meaningless in isolation. It becomes meaningful only when it is combined with other phonemes.

语言结构具有二重性。其中一层结构本身是没有意义的，但是它会与另外具有意义的一层相结合。比如，人类语言中的音素，独立的音素本身通常是没有意义的，当与其他因素结合起来才有可能产生意义。

3．Productivity (多产性)

Productivity or creativity refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.

多产性是指人们的一种语言能力，能使人们用母语说出或者明白无限多的句子，有些我们以前从未听过的句子。

4．Interchangeability (互换性)

Interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.

互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

5．Displacement (移位性)

Displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time.

移位性能使人们谈论距离和时间上不可及的事物。

6．Specialization (专门性)

Specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication.

专门性是指人们在交流过程中并不是全身的运动，只通过语言即可交流。

7．Cultural transmission (文化传递性)

Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese.

语言是通过文化传递的，而不是遗传的。一个中国小孩在伦敦长大的话就会说英文，而一个英国小孩在北京长大的话就会说中文。

VII. Functions of language (语言功能)

1．Phatic function/communion (寒暄功能)

Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer. Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather serve this function.

语言能够在说话者与听话者之间建立一种气氛或是维持两者间的社会关系，如问候语、送别及谈论天气的对话。

2．Directive function (指示功能)

Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function.

语言能使听话者按照听到的话去做。大部分祈使句都体现了这种功能。

3．Informative function (信息功能)

Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. Declarative sentences serve this function.

语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理，一般出现在陈述句中。

4．Interrogative function (疑问功能)

Language is used to ask for information from others. All questions expecting replies serve this function.

语言用来向他人提问而获取信息。需回答的疑问句体现了此功能。

5．Expressive function (表达功能)

Language is used to reveal the speaker’s attitudes and feelings. Ejaculations serve this function, such as “My God!” and “Good heavens!”

语言用来表达说话者的态度与感受。感叹句体现了此功能，例如“我的天啊！”

6．Evocative function (唤起功能)

Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers. Jokes, advertising, and propaganda serve this function.

语言用来使听话者产生某种感情。开玩笑，广告还有宣传中的语言体现了这一功能。

7．Performative function (施为功能)

Language is used to do things or to perform acts. The judge’s imprisonment sentences, the president’s declaration of war or the Queen’s naming of a ship, etc., serve this function.

语言用来实施一种行为。比如入狱判刑，总统宣战，女皇为船舰命名等体现了语言的这种职能。

VIII. Some major concepts in linguistics (语言学中的主要概念)

1．Descriptive and prescriptive grammar (描写式与规定式语法)

(1) Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.

(2) As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.

(1) 描写式语法旨在对语言进行描述，而规定式语法旨在规定语言应该如何。

(2) 传统与法学家试图规定语言规则，这就是规定式语法。现代语言学基本上是描写式语法。

2．Synchronic and diachronic linguistics (共时与历时语言学)

When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics.

Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.

对语言在历史上的某一时间点进行的描写就是共时性语言学；对语言随时间变化而变化进行的描写就是历时性语言学。

共时语言学集中研究历史任何时期点的语言现状，而历时语言学集中研究几十年或几百年的时期内两个或比两个更多的语言状况的差异。

3．Langue and parole (语言与言语)

(1) F. de Saussure made an important distinction between langue and parole.

(2) Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.

(3) Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.

(1) 索绪尔对语言和言语做了重要区分。

(2) 语言是指一个语言群体的所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统。言语是指语言的具体实现和运用。

(3) 语言是社会的，约定性的，而言语是个人的话语。

4．Competence and performance (语言能力和语言应用)

According to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.

根据乔姆斯基的理论，一名语言使用者对于语言规则系统的潜在认识称为他的语言能力。语言运用指在具体场景中语言的实际运用。

5．Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations (组合与聚合关系)

Saussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.

索绪尔提出了另一对概念：组合与聚合关系。前者是指语言要素之间的水平关系，呈线形结构。后者是指语言形式间的垂直关系，在结构中也许在同一结构。

6．Functionalism and formalism (功能主义与结构主义)

【重点、考点：区分功能观与句子观】

Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication.

Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.

功能主义或功能语言学指以交际中语言社会功能为依据，对语言形式的研究。

结构主义或结构语言学指抽象的语言形式及内部关系的研究。