III The Struggle for Independence

French and Indian War

In the 17th and 18th centuries, England and France emerged as the world's most powerful nations. Between the 1680's and 1750's, colonial rivalry led to struggle for empire between Great Britain and France. The two fought four major wars in various parts of the globe. The last of these wars was known in Europe as the Seven Years' War（1756—1763）and in North America as the French and Indian War（1754—1760）, which was regarded by some historians as the first truly world war and resulted in British domination of that continent.

Victory had brought Great Britain vast new territories but also a number of new problems. One of these was the disposal of western lands. The British government faced the problem of Indian resistance to westward expansion. In the spring of 1763, Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, led a rebellion against the British. Pontiac's rebellion forced the British government to act. The attempted solution was the Proclamation of 1763, which established the crest（顶部）of the Appalachians as a boundary line between white and Indian lands. Although this was a temporary measure, the colonists resented both the line and the presence of British troops sent to enforce the new law.

The British government's attempts to raise revenue through direct taxation to pay for the huge debt left by the war aroused even greater resentment in the colonies. Colonial protests and British determination to force the colonies to submit to parliamentary authority led to open warfare that eventually split the two apart.

The Declaration of Independence

On June 7, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution in the Second Continental Congress declaring“That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states...” Immediately, a committee of five was appointed to prepare a formal declaration of Independence. This committee included Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, John Adams of Massachusetts, Robert Livingston of New York, Roger Sherman of Connecticut and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Jefferson was chosen to do the writing.

On July 4,1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, in which the 13 Colonies officially broke away from Britain and formally declared their independence as the United States of America. The pronouncement of independence on the part of the new United States had far-reaching effects. It transformed the rebellion into a revolution and committed the mass of patriots to separation. The Declaration also led to increased foreign aid for the revolution and prepared the way for French intervention on the American side. In order to achieve and maintain independence, however, the new nation had to face full-scale war with Britain.

Four Phases of the War

In total, the war lasted for eight years and had four phases, each with a distinct strategy and character. Despite early American losses, the tides of battle changed when the French entered the war on the side of the United States. Backed by the French, the Americans achieved ultimate victory over the British at Yorktown in 1781. By the terms of the Treaty of Paris, England recognized American independence and surrendered to the United States its territories east of the Mississippi River between the Great Lakes and Florida.

Phase One: The Opening Campaigns（April 1775—July1776）

Phase Two: The British Northern Offensive（July 1776—Oct. 1777）

Phase Three: The War in the South（early 1778—Oct.1781）

Phase Four: Peace Negotiations（Oct.1781—Sept.1783）

During the first phase, from April 1775 to July 1776, the Patriots' goal was to turn the revolt into an organized rebellion, while British governors and armed Loyalists tried to suppress the uprising. The second phase of the war began with a major British invasion of New York in July 1776 and ended with the American victory at Saratoga in October 1777. During the third phase of the war Britain tried to subdue the South. Beginning in early 1778 it used regular troops to take territory and local Loyalists to hold it. Patriots used guerrilla warfare to weaken British forces, and then used French assistance to achieved ultimate victory over the British at Yorktown, Virginia in October, 1781. The final phase of the war came when astute Patriot diplomacy won a treaty recognizing the independence of the United States in September 1783. By the terms of the Treaty of Paris, England recognized American independence and surrendered to the United States its territories east of the Mississippi River between the Great Lakes and Florida.